Chemistry an Introduction

Chemistry is the field of science that is the study of the interactions of atoms to form molecules and their properties.

Chemistry go back to before known civilization with fire and metal work. Modern Chemistry grew out of Alchemy and its search to turn metals like lead into gold and the so called elixir of life. Chemistry got much from Alchemy particularly its affinity research and experimentation. Once Chemistry broke from Alchemy it lead to an explosion of knowledge about the nature and structure of matter.

Chemistry begins with individual atoms of different elements such as hydrogen, carbon and oxygen. Atoms come together to form molecules such as water which is made of one oxygen atom getting together with two hydrogen atoms, methane which is made of one carbon atom getting together with four hydrogen atoms and carbon dioxide which is made of two oxygen atoms getting together with one carbon atom. These are all different substances with different properties.

The Periodic Table is a list of the chemical elements organized by recurring properties. The information about each element included varies but often includes element’s name, atomic number, symbol, and atomic weight. It is a vary use full took in Chemistry and one the most recognizable things associated with Chemistry.

Chemical reactions are the process by which atoms come together or are rearranged to form new molecules. There are two main types of chemical reactions. Endothermic reactions which use heat energy in forming new molecules and exothermic reactions which release heat energy in forming new molecules. Exothermic reactions are some times explosive which is a common danger in Chemistry.

There are two main fields of chemistry. Organic chemistry which is chemistry based on the element Carbon and may or may not involve life and inorganic chemistry which is chemistry not based on the element Carbon.

In conclusion chemistry is a major field of science and it is the most experiment based field of science. Chemistry embodies the ideal of science stated in the scientific method more than any other field of science.

Why Faster than Light Neutrinos are not a Problem for Relativity.

When CERN reported measuring neutrinos going faster than the speed of light it created speculation that it showed a problem withSpecial Relativity. The measurement was about 20 parts per million faster than light so since the speed of light is 299,792,458 m/s the neutrinos were going 6 km/s faster than light which could easily be an experimental error.

If it is confirmed it would still not be a problem for Special Relativity since not traveling at or faster than the speed of light only applies to particles with a real non zero rest mass. A particle like a photon that has a zero rest mass travels at the speed of light. Particles that travel faster than light have been speculated for years under the name tachyons. Tachyons would have a negative imaginary rest mass giving it a real non zero mass at speeds above the speed of light. It would however be incapable of being decelerated to the speed of light below it.

Furthermore quantum effects such as quantum tunneling provided another way around the light barrier by allowing particles to instantly skip over an area of space without actually going through it while traveling sub light through the space it does go through thus not violating Special Relativity. 

The Carbon Dioxide Pollution Myth

Based on the doctrine of global warming the Environmental Protection Agency has decreed that carbon dioxide is a dangerous pollutant and are regulating it accordingly. This is a totally stupid notion because considering carbon dioxide an air pollutant could not be more absurd. Carbon dioxide is a naturally occurring atmospheric gas that is used by plants and produced by people and animals. Furthermore plants thrive on higher levels of carbon dioxide. It poses no danger to people or animals because we breathe it in and out in every breath of your life with no affects.

When we look at other planets carbon dioxide is shown to the most natural atmospheric gas for terrestrial planetary. There are three terrestrial planets in the Solar system with substantial atmospheres two of them Mars and Venus have largely carbon dioxide atmospheres. Even Earth would have a nitrogen / carbon dioxide atmosphere if plants did not produce lots of free oxygen. So once again the idea of dioxide as a pollutant is absurd.

So doesn’t global warming make it dangerous? Well if you ignore the fact that the computer models used to support man caused global warming make the thermodynamically impossible assumption that as the global temperature raises the amount of heat lost to space goes down and if you ignore Climate Gate which shows that climate data has been manipulated. Even if you ignore all this and take the proponents of global warming at their word, they are only predicting a rise in temperature comparable to that of the Medieval Warm Period. The Medieval Warm Period was actually beneficial allowing the Vikings to reach America and helping Europe recover from the black plaque It resulted in an increased food production and prosperity. So once again carbon idea of dioxide being a pollutant is absurd.

So why did the EPA take such a ludicrous step? The answer is Cap and Trade. President Obama could not get congress to pass Cap and Trade; a scam that would enrich those behind the plan at the expense of the U.S. economy. After congress refused to pass Cap and Trade seeing it as a job killer during a time of high unemployment President Obama used the EPA to do get it by way of regulation. The EPA ruling carbon dioxide as a dangerous pollutant is President Obama’s way of doing this.

References

Thermodynamics In Physics

Global Warming Fraud and Its Affect on Science

Science corrupted - YouTube

The Hockey Stick: A New Low in Climate Science

Climategate: Dr. Tim Ball on the hacked CRU emails - YouTube

Moving Things by Force

That which causes a free body to undergo acceleration is called foece.

There are four fundamental forces in Nature. They are gravity which is the mutual attraction of all matter in the universe it is what holds you to the Earth, electromagnetism which is the mutual attraction and repulsion of charged partials, the weak nuclear force is that which regulates types of nuclear decay such as Bata decay by overcoming the strong nuclear force and the strong nuclear force is the binding force that holds the atomic nucleus together against the tendency of positively charged protons.

Force causes mater to accelerate which is the main function of force by definition. It can be used to overcome other forces such as friction gravity. Force also holds things together since the electromagnetic force holds an object together including your body and the strong nuclear force holds atomic nuclei together. It can break things apart such as bombs or the force resulting from ramming two things together which can cause them to shatter and the peaces to fly apart.
Regardless of its source force causes acceleration. Force can also stop acceleration by resisting another force. Force holes thing together so force does indeed bind us together

Interpreting of the Physics of Quantum Mechanics

The following interpretations are theories to explain the reality going behind Quantum Mechanics. Each theory has unique basic concepts and they are not necessarily mutually exclusive since there is some overlap of concepts. The thought experiment called Schrödinger's cat involved placing a cat in a sealed box with a vile of poison that would kill the cat if broken, a radioactive material and a gaiter counter set to drop a hammer on the vile of poison if it detects a radiometric decay event. When the cat is later observed it is found to be ether alive or dead and each these interpretations has a different description of the state of the cat before it is observed.

According to the Copenhagen interpretation quantum particles don't exist in any one state but exists in all of its possible states at once. Once a quantum particle is observed it is forced take on one of the possible states resulting in the is the state that is actually observed. Since it may be forced into a different state each time is why quantum particles behave erratically. The state of a particle being in all possible states at once is called an object's coherent superposition. When an object is observe the superposition collapses the object is forced into one of the states of its wave function. Schrödinger's cat would be both dead and alive at the same time until actually observed. Ultimately the only thing that really matters are the experimental results it does not really seek to explain what it happening behind the experimental results. Currently it is the most popular interpretation, but it is losing ground.

The consistent histories interpretation works backwards from the results of an experiment claiming that only a few possible histories are consistent with quantum mechanics and that Quantum mechanics simply predicts the probabilities of various alternative histories Schrödinger's cat is either alive or dead but not  both Quantum mechanics just gives the probability of which it may be. This idea is not very popular because it still doesn't explain how a particle can go through two slits and interfere with itself and it is considered by some to be pretty much the same as Copenhagen.

The Transactional interpretation sees quantum mechanical waves as stand waves in space time that constructively interfere were the particle is  and destructively interfere every place else. These waves go both forward and backward in time. There is an "exact canceling" of waves so that is no "net" energy travels backwards in time. In the case of Schrödinger's cat tt is alive until the interference patterns line up in the sample to result in a decay event.

The Bohm interpretation or pilot-wave theory depicts the quantum wave guides the particle. It is totally deterministic and good at explaining quantum phenomenon but requires a large number of hidden variables that can not be directly measured. The hidden variables have the side affect of rendering the interpretation untestable. Schrödinger's cat is alive until one the pilot-waves in the sample to causes a decay event.

The many-worlds interpretation sees the world as constantly splitting off into multiple universes in which every possible quantum event occurs. This fits perfectly with Evolution even the most improbable events occurred in some of these universes. Schrödinger's cat the universe keeps spitting off into each alternative in one the cat lives and in the other dies. They both happen in different quantum universes. No evidence exists for this interpretation since the alterative worlds would be forever out of reach. While quantum interference between adjacent worlds has been suggested, the possible evidence for it. Successful interpretation of single particle interference is not unique to the Many-worlds interpretation. So acceptance of this interpretation is purely philosophical and not scientific since it can not be tested.

With consciousness causes collapse consciousness collapses the quantum mechanical waves when an observation is made. There is some supporting evidence for this though the evidence is not exclusive to this interpretation. It is compatible with General Intelligent Design as well.  This supporting evidence comes from the human brain. It turns out that synaptic activity in the brain requires quantum tunneling on demand. This shows some degree of control by the mind of quantum wave functions. Thus view fits well with both New Age / Hinduism, and the Christian world view. With New Age / Hinduism it provides a way for the mind to interact with the world beyond the five senses. With the Christian world view, since God is the ultimate mind it provides a model for his interaction with our world.  Schrödinger's cat It would be both alive and dead until observed then the mind of the observer would collapse the wave function choosing one or the other. It is similar to the Copenhagen interpretation in this regard.

General Intelligent Design also known as General Grand Unification (GGU) was published by Dr. Robert A. Herrmann professor of Mathematics retired U. S. Naval Academy. By this view quantum mechanical waves and their collapse results from intelligent agents that determine the states resulting from the waves' collapse. These intelligent agents could be one or more intelligent beings or mechanisms preprogrammed by an intelligent being.  This is supported by evidence of synaptic activity in the brain requiring quantum tunneling on demand showing some degree of intelligent control of quantum wave functions.This interpretation fits well with the Christian world view. The idea of an intelligence controlling the universe at its fundamental level fits well with God as described in the Bible. In the case of Schrödinger's cat, the cat is a live until the controlling intelligent agent decides to cause a decay event to takes place and then the cat dies.

The relationship between the mind and Quantum Mechanics is mentioned here because it provides evidence in support for the last two interpretations consciousness causes collapse and General Intelligent Design. It turns out that the synaptic barriers of dendrite brain cells are too thick for nerve signals to classically cross. This means that nerve signals need to use Quantum tunneling to cross the dendrite synaptic barrier. The odds of the nerve signal tunneling across the dendrite synaptic barrier are 1 chance in  10,000,000,  Yet for our brains to function these tunneling events need to occur on demand this is evidence for the mind being able to control quantum phenomenon and against the naturalistic model of the mind as well.

In conclusion there are many ways of interpreting Quantum Mechanics. Acceptance or rejection of each often has more to do with philosophy than science. each fits better with some philosophical views than others and each interpretation differs in how it sees the fundamental nature of reality.

The Work of Energy In Physics

The ability of a system to do work is called energy and Special Relativity shows that energy has mass and that the mass of all matter is a result of energy, so that all substance is based on energy. The 1st Law of Thermodynamics states that the energy in any interaction is conserved. The result is that is the total amount of energy in the universe is constant. It is also stated as energy can not be created or destroyed but it can change forms.

Here are some common types of energy. Heat energy is the energy associated with the temperature of an object. Light energy is the energy associated with visible light. Electrical energy is the energy associated with an electric current. Chemical energy is the energy associated with the reactions involving molecules. Nuclear energy is the energy associated with reactions involving atomic nuclei. Kinetic energy is the energy associated with motion.  Potential energy is the energy of a system based on its position or condition. Stored energy. Rest mass energy is the energy of an object that is not in motion. E= mc².

Energy is one of the three main parts of the Universe space, time and mass and relativity shows them to be inter-related. Space and time are so interrelated that they form a single entity. Furthermore mass warps space-time forming Gravity and the motion of mass contracts both space and time. 

In conclusion in common experience energy is what moves us and allows us to move thing. Physics has shown it to be a lot more. It is a fundamental part of the universe.

What's Matters in Physics

Anything that has mass and occupies volume is called Matter:. In general it is the substance of which all physical objects are made. Mass is in the generally sense it is the amount of matter in an object. It is the term for two properties of matter that are equal in value: inertial mass gravitational mass. Inertial Mass is the resistance of a body to acceleration when responding to force. Gravitational Mass is  the property of an object that determines the strength of its gravitational field and its reaction to gravity.

The existence of a relationship between the inertial and gravitational mass of an object is evident from the fact that they have same the value. However General Relativity shows that inertial and gravitational mass are two aspects of the same thing. Special Relativity shows that an objects mass is equivalent to the amount of energy an object contains.

Normal Matter is composed of atoms. Atoms are a nucleus; made of protons and neutrons; with electrons around it. This form of matter in what we commonly experience. Matter makes up everything around us, everything we see, everything we touch and even our bodies. Matter is one of the three main parts of the Universe Space, Time and Mass. (matter) Relativity shows them to be inter-related in that space and time are so interrelated that they form a single entity called space-time. Furthermore mass warps space-time forming gravity and the motion of mass contracts both space and time. In common experience matter is what makes up objects around us and Physics has shown that it to be a lot more. Matter is a fundamental part of the universe.