Condensed Matter Physics

Condensed Matter Physics

Condensed matter physics is the area of physics dealing with condensed phases of matter and their physical properties.  Condensed phases of matter include common one like liquids and solids as well as more exotic ones like superconductors and superfluids. The goal of condensed matter physics is to understand how condensed phases of matter behave.

The most commonly known types of condensed matter are liquids and solids. While there are other types of condensed matter are they tend to be a form of liquid or solid. In fact many of these types of condensed matter are not exclusive and object can some time exist in more than one of these states at the same time.

Condensed matter physics is basically the physics of liquids and solids. It studies the properties of different types of liquids and solids and the transitions that occur between them.  As simple as this sounds it produces a lot of interesting results and technologies. In fact many of the parts of the computer you are reading this one of their origins in Condensed matter physics

The Strainge Reality of Double Slit Experiment

The double slit experiment has its bases in the wave/particle duality of subatomic particles. What makes it so amazing is that the results are among the strangest in quantum mechanics. It is the king of quantum weirdness being the strangest results in science. The original double silt experiment used photons of light, but later versions used electrons but the results are the same The double slit experiment is actually responsible for starting Quantum Physics.

Over the decades numerous explanations have been proposed to explain the results of what on the surface is a very simple experiment. However resent experiments involving quantum erasure seem to have reduced the possibilities to being the information that is collected making the difference.

What seem to be happening is the in general subatomic particles tend to exist as wave functions that represent multiple possibilities. When specific information is measured about an event those possibilities are reduced to one producing the needed information. A new wave function of multiple possibilities is then produced consistent with that one possibility.

Putting it all together suggests that what we call reality is actually immaterial at its most fundamental level. At its most fundamental level the universe seems to be composed entirely of information. This makes it more like a sophisticated computer program than a world of material objects.

It is more than just the existence of the information the affects the experiment but its ability of it to eventually be accessed by the experimenter. That experimenter is ultimately a human being that is a conscience entity. The information that makes up reality seems to be calculated as need for a conscience entity so as to produce a consistent reality. This shows that consciousness is a fundamental part of reality. This is not new age thought but what the observation of subatomic particles is actually telling us.

The Fundamental Forces of Nature Electromagnetism

Lighting Up Electromagnetism

Video's YouTube Channel

Electromagnetism studies theaffects of electric charges both at rest and in motion.  As one of the four fundamental forces of nature and the main binding force of the atom outside the nucleus, electromagnetic theory is important to understanding nature.

The property of subatomic particle that gives rise to electric fields is called charge. The charge of a particle can be negative, positive, or neutral. Charge is a fundamental property of matter. Magnetism is the force of attraction or repulsion resulting from the motion of electric charges.

While the force lines associated with electric charges tend to be strait, magnetic force lines tend to be circular. Electrodynamics is the branch of physics dealing with the electromagnetic forces between electric charges. In its most basic form electrodynamics deals with the affect of charges in relative motion. It is this mutual production of electric and magnetic fields that  forms the  bases of the unification of eclectic and magnetic fields. Every thing else in electromagnetism extends from this starting principles.



Double Slit Experiment

The double slit experiment a famous some would say infamous experiment in. The experiment requires shooting light or other subatomic particles such as electrons at a screen with two slits in it. Warning things are about to get strange.

When a double slit experiment is perfumed using pure waves the result is an interference pattern. When pure particles like bullets are used they produce two lines behind the slits. But subatomic particles like photons and electrons don’t act like bullets they produce a wave like interference pattern, even when they are shot one at a time.  It seems that each of the particles goes through both slits at the same time.

However the strangeness dose not stop there because when detectors are put in place to see which slit each particle goes through their behavior suddenly changes and they produce only the two lines like bullets would.

Even stranger yet when the detectors are on but the no data is taken the result is a wave like interference pattern suggesting it is the conscience act of observing that actually changes the result.

 Additional Reference

Video on the Double Slit Experiment of Quantum Physics

Double Slit Experiment - YouTube



Video on Faster Than Light Neutrinos



There’s a common mistake that this is a problem for relativity but it is not. Relativity forbids is accelerating up to and past the speed of light but does not for bid particles that naturally travel faster than the speed of light. Such particles have been speculated about for decades under name tachyons.

The only real difficulty is that neutrinos have a small but real rest mass and so should not be traveling faster than the speed of light. In that case the issue is most likely with our understanding of neutrinos and relativity

Quantum Mechanics allows particles to skip part of space instantly and so could be clocked at faster than the speed of light while going sub-light through the space it actually goes through. This is the most likely explanation of this observation given calculations from India.  See in Faster Than Light Neutrinos Fl aw Found.

Levitating Slinky

If you drop a dangling slinky, you would expect it to just fall to the ground but that is not what happens. What actually happens is that the bottom just hovers for a moment until the top collapses on top of it as seem in the video There are two main reasons why this occurs.

This first has to do with newtons law of action reaction. As top falls the spring of the slinky is pulls it down faster the pull of gravity. At the same time the spring is pulling the bottom up countering the pull of gravity. As a result the bottom remains  suspended until the top collapses on to it ending the action reaction effect.

The second is that because the bottom of the slinky is held up by tension and it take the time needed for the top to collapse for the bottom to get the message that the top was dropped.

Faster than Light Neutrinos Flaw Found

Two Indian physicists have found serious a problem with the experimental observations that neutrinos went faster than Light. That problem is has to do with the fact that if the neutrinos has traveled faster than Light relativity shows that their energy would have actually been much lower than what was actually observed. This throws an interesting wrench in problem.

Interestingly there is a way of reconciling these results that is consistent with established physics, specifically Quantum Mechanics. That solution is that the CERN neutrinos did travel at sublight speeds but only through the space they actually went through and that the instantly skipped the rest of it making their average speed faster than light. Quantum Mechanics has several phenomenon like quantum tunneling that allow this to happen

A Short Look at M–Theory

Introduction

M-theory is an unification and extension of string theory. String theory requires 6 dimensions beyond the 4 (3 space, 1 time) that we are already familiar with for a total 10 dimensions.  Further more as string theory developed 5 different versions were produced. M-theory resulted from the simple addition of an 11th dimension, resulting in a unification of 5 different versions of String theory.

The result is a unification of the four forces of nature including gravity in a single theory. This accomplishment has one down side and that is the difficulty of finding evidence of these higher dimensions. It does however make predictions that should be testable is the world’s larges super collider. The powerful particle accelerator can produce the energy levels need to look into the small scales where there these extra dimensions can be detected. However this super collider has so far failed to find the evidence predicted by m-theory

Branes

It was discovered that by adding this 11th dimension that a string could be stretched out to form a membrane or brane for short. Furthermore strings could be attached to a bane forming the bases for a universe. It provides the vary fabric for space-time general relativity showed exists.

Conclusion

M-theory is a theoretical concept that has much potential. It expands our view of reality beyond which science has previously considered. It opens up new possibilities science would previous been closed to.

Moving Things by Force

That which causes a free body to undergo acceleration is called foece.

There are four fundamental forces in Nature. They are gravity which is the mutual attraction of all matter in the universe it is what holds you to the Earth, electromagnetism which is the mutual attraction and repulsion of charged partials, the weak nuclear force is that which regulates types of nuclear decay such as Bata decay by overcoming the strong nuclear force and the strong nuclear force is the binding force that holds the atomic nucleus together against the tendency of positively charged protons.

Force causes mater to accelerate which is the main function of force by definition. It can be used to overcome other forces such as friction gravity. Force also holds things together since the electromagnetic force holds an object together including your body and the strong nuclear force holds atomic nuclei together. It can break things apart such as bombs or the force resulting from ramming two things together which can cause them to shatter and the peaces to fly apart.
Regardless of its source force causes acceleration. Force can also stop acceleration by resisting another force. Force holes thing together so force does indeed bind us together

Interpreting of the Physics of Quantum Mechanics

The following interpretations are theories to explain the reality going behind Quantum Mechanics. Each theory has unique basic concepts and they are not necessarily mutually exclusive since there is some overlap of concepts. The thought experiment called Schrödinger's cat involved placing a cat in a sealed box with a vile of poison that would kill the cat if broken, a radioactive material and a gaiter counter set to drop a hammer on the vile of poison if it detects a radiometric decay event. When the cat is later observed it is found to be ether alive or dead and each these interpretations has a different description of the state of the cat before it is observed.

According to the Copenhagen interpretation quantum particles don't exist in any one state but exists in all of its possible states at once. Once a quantum particle is observed it is forced take on one of the possible states resulting in the is the state that is actually observed. Since it may be forced into a different state each time is why quantum particles behave erratically. The state of a particle being in all possible states at once is called an object's coherent superposition. When an object is observe the superposition collapses the object is forced into one of the states of its wave function. Schrödinger's cat would be both dead and alive at the same time until actually observed. Ultimately the only thing that really matters are the experimental results it does not really seek to explain what it happening behind the experimental results. Currently it is the most popular interpretation, but it is losing ground.

The consistent histories interpretation works backwards from the results of an experiment claiming that only a few possible histories are consistent with quantum mechanics and that Quantum mechanics simply predicts the probabilities of various alternative histories Schrödinger's cat is either alive or dead but not  both Quantum mechanics just gives the probability of which it may be. This idea is not very popular because it still doesn't explain how a particle can go through two slits and interfere with itself and it is considered by some to be pretty much the same as Copenhagen.

The Transactional interpretation sees quantum mechanical waves as stand waves in space time that constructively interfere were the particle is  and destructively interfere every place else. These waves go both forward and backward in time. There is an "exact canceling" of waves so that is no "net" energy travels backwards in time. In the case of Schrödinger's cat tt is alive until the interference patterns line up in the sample to result in a decay event.

The Bohm interpretation or pilot-wave theory depicts the quantum wave guides the particle. It is totally deterministic and good at explaining quantum phenomenon but requires a large number of hidden variables that can not be directly measured. The hidden variables have the side affect of rendering the interpretation untestable. Schrödinger's cat is alive until one the pilot-waves in the sample to causes a decay event.

The many-worlds interpretation sees the world as constantly splitting off into multiple universes in which every possible quantum event occurs. This fits perfectly with Evolution even the most improbable events occurred in some of these universes. Schrödinger's cat the universe keeps spitting off into each alternative in one the cat lives and in the other dies. They both happen in different quantum universes. No evidence exists for this interpretation since the alterative worlds would be forever out of reach. While quantum interference between adjacent worlds has been suggested, the possible evidence for it. Successful interpretation of single particle interference is not unique to the Many-worlds interpretation. So acceptance of this interpretation is purely philosophical and not scientific since it can not be tested.

With consciousness causes collapse consciousness collapses the quantum mechanical waves when an observation is made. There is some supporting evidence for this though the evidence is not exclusive to this interpretation. It is compatible with General Intelligent Design as well.  This supporting evidence comes from the human brain. It turns out that synaptic activity in the brain requires quantum tunneling on demand. This shows some degree of control by the mind of quantum wave functions. Thus view fits well with both New Age / Hinduism, and the Christian world view. With New Age / Hinduism it provides a way for the mind to interact with the world beyond the five senses. With the Christian world view, since God is the ultimate mind it provides a model for his interaction with our world.  Schrödinger's cat It would be both alive and dead until observed then the mind of the observer would collapse the wave function choosing one or the other. It is similar to the Copenhagen interpretation in this regard.

General Intelligent Design also known as General Grand Unification (GGU) was published by Dr. Robert A. Herrmann professor of Mathematics retired U. S. Naval Academy. By this view quantum mechanical waves and their collapse results from intelligent agents that determine the states resulting from the waves' collapse. These intelligent agents could be one or more intelligent beings or mechanisms preprogrammed by an intelligent being.  This is supported by evidence of synaptic activity in the brain requiring quantum tunneling on demand showing some degree of intelligent control of quantum wave functions.This interpretation fits well with the Christian world view. The idea of an intelligence controlling the universe at its fundamental level fits well with God as described in the Bible. In the case of Schrödinger's cat, the cat is a live until the controlling intelligent agent decides to cause a decay event to takes place and then the cat dies.

The relationship between the mind and Quantum Mechanics is mentioned here because it provides evidence in support for the last two interpretations consciousness causes collapse and General Intelligent Design. It turns out that the synaptic barriers of dendrite brain cells are too thick for nerve signals to classically cross. This means that nerve signals need to use Quantum tunneling to cross the dendrite synaptic barrier. The odds of the nerve signal tunneling across the dendrite synaptic barrier are 1 chance in  10,000,000,  Yet for our brains to function these tunneling events need to occur on demand this is evidence for the mind being able to control quantum phenomenon and against the naturalistic model of the mind as well.

In conclusion there are many ways of interpreting Quantum Mechanics. Acceptance or rejection of each often has more to do with philosophy than science. each fits better with some philosophical views than others and each interpretation differs in how it sees the fundamental nature of reality.

What's Matters in Physics

Anything that has mass and occupies volume is called Matter:. In general it is the substance of which all physical objects are made. Mass is in the generally sense it is the amount of matter in an object. It is the term for two properties of matter that are equal in value: inertial mass gravitational mass. Inertial Mass is the resistance of a body to acceleration when responding to force. Gravitational Mass is  the property of an object that determines the strength of its gravitational field and its reaction to gravity.

The existence of a relationship between the inertial and gravitational mass of an object is evident from the fact that they have same the value. However General Relativity shows that inertial and gravitational mass are two aspects of the same thing. Special Relativity shows that an objects mass is equivalent to the amount of energy an object contains.

Normal Matter is composed of atoms. Atoms are a nucleus; made of protons and neutrons; with electrons around it. This form of matter in what we commonly experience. Matter makes up everything around us, everything we see, everything we touch and even our bodies. Matter is one of the three main parts of the Universe Space, Time and Mass. (matter) Relativity shows them to be inter-related in that space and time are so interrelated that they form a single entity called space-time. Furthermore mass warps space-time forming gravity and the motion of mass contracts both space and time. In common experience matter is what makes up objects around us and Physics has shown that it to be a lot more. Matter is a fundamental part of the universe.

Motion in Physics How it Moves

The change in an object’s location of with respect to time is called motion. Strait line motion is the most basic form of motion involving strait ling notion with no force involved thus no acceleration and a constant velocity. Circular motion is motion around a central point it results from a force being applied to an object at a right angle to the objects motion such as gravity keeping a satellite in orbit is a good example.

Relativity theory shows that all motion is relative since it can only be measured relative to a given observer. These measurements are also reversible such that if I see someone moving a given direction at a given speed, he sees me going the opposite direction at the same speed. Motion is describes the changing of location of an object. Motion can be both strait and curved. It can only be described relative to a chosen point of reference. Motion is how we get from place to place.

Quantization in the science of Quantum Mechanics

The situation where physical quantities such as position, energy and momentum can only have certain discrete values are called Quantization.When in free empty space these values are continuous when bound to an area of space these properties can only have certain discrete values. The energy contained in a given frequency of electromagnetic waves is quantized in that it always has the same value at the same frequency. The electromagnetic energy is found in discrete packet called photons.

The quantization of the electron energy inside an atom explains much of the behavior of atoms such as why atoms emit only discrete frequencies of light. An electron in a low orbit of an atom will absorb a photon causing the electron to jump to a higher orbit and then emits a photon jumping back to the lower orbit.

The quantization of space-time has its bases in two of Max Planck’ natural units that are based on five universal physical constants: Gravitational constant, Reduced Planck constant, Speed of light in a vacuum, Coulomb constant, and Boltzmann's constant  The two with physical significance are Planck Length and Planck Time are the smallest possible measurements of space-time according our current understanding of the laws of Physics because of the  uncertainty principle when a plied to these scales. This suggests that time and space themselves are Quantized. The smallest measurement of length that has any meaning with in the laws of physics as we understand them today is called Planck Length and it has a value of 1.616 252 × 10⁻³⁵ m. The amount of time it takes a photon to cross a Planck Length. It is the smallest measurement of time that has any meaning with in the laws of physics as we understand them today is called Planck Time with a value of 5.391 24 × 10⁻⁴⁴ s.

Quantization requires physical quantities like position, energy and momentum to have discrete values explaining much of what goes on in side atom and based on our current understanding of the laws of physics it suggest that time and space are quantized.

Quantum Nonlocality its every ware

The phenomenon by which measurements made at a subatomic level necessarily refutes the notions of local realism is called Quantum Nonlocality. Put simply it says that particles of matter are not restricted to local interactions and that they can have interactions outside their local system with no limit on distance.

Bell's Theorem was developed by John Stewart Bell and shows that there is no physical theory of local hidden variables that can ever reproduce all of the predictions of Quantum Mechanics. Bell's Theorem leaves open the possibility of non-local hidden variables.

The implications are that subatomic particles clearly exhibit non-local behavior showing that our notions of location do not apply at the fundamental levels of reality. Quantum Nonlocality creates a link between the physical and metaphysical.

The Spook Action at a Distance Called Quantum Entanglement

The phenomenon in which the quantum states of two or more objects have to be described with reference to each other, even though the individual objects may be separated in space is called Quantum Entanglement. Einstein said  it was “Spook action at a distance”  This results in a correlation between the observable physical properties of the systems such that a change in one object causes an instantaneous change in the other.

Because of Special Relativity  classical information is generally thought being incapable  being sent faster than light by this means. This is because the two particles need to be near each other to become entangled, or they need an intermediate particle, which has to be near one particle and then the other. But this would not prevent the possibility of sending information faster than light in cases where the sender and receiver were originally near each other and then separated such as s apace ship leaving Earth and using such a means for communications. Quantum entanglement is a quantum effect that has no parallel in Classical mechanics.

Quantum Tunneling an Effect of Quantum Mechanics

The process by which a particle gets across a barrier that it can not classically pass is called Quantum tunneling. Related to Wave-particle duality; Quantum tunneling results from the wave nature of a particle were the probability of the particle getting through the barrier drops exponentially with the thickness of the barrier.

When the wave comes in contact with the barrier most of it bounces off the carrier but a small amount passes through the barrier; but that amount decays exponentially with the thickness of the barrier.  Such that the amplitude of the initial wave increases then the amplitude of the wave on the opposite side of the barrier increases. If the barrier thickness increases, the amplitude of the wave on the opposite side of the barrier decreases. If the energy of the initial wave increases, (wavelength decreases) the amplitude of the wave on the opposite side of the barrier increases. If the waves energy greater than that of the barrier it all passes through the barrier but with a longer wavelength For particles most of them bounce off while a few instantly get through.

Theoretically valid Quantum tunneling is at the macroscopic but the odds of it occurring are extremely small. As a result there is a non zero probability that you could run your car into a brick wall an suddenly find yourself safely on the other side. However please don’t try it because the odds that it will happen are so small as to be impossible by any reasonable definition so if try it you will die.

Tunneling gets subatomic particles across barriers they normally can not cross. The number of particles that gets across the barrier drops exponentially with the barrier thickness. The number of particles that gets across the barrier increases with the energy of the particle. Quantum tunneling is a purely quantum effect. It has no counter part in Classical mechanics. It could theoretically occur on the macroscopic scale but the odds are too small to ever see it happen.

Superconduction an Effect of Quantum Mechanics

The property that occurs in certain materials below a characteristic temperature where they have an electrical resistance of exactly zero is called superconduction. Discovered in 1911 it took years to find a theory that allowed superconduction to be understood.

At a critical temperature that varies with the substance the electrical resistance will suddenly drops to zero.  The basic theory is that at the critical temperature electrons become coupled over a ranger of about 1,000 X the spacing of the conductor’s lattice with a binding energy that is the result of vibration that the electrons cause in the lattice. Called cooper pairs, the coupled electrons effectively becomes a boson and condense into the ground state. The result is that each coupled electron helps the other over come any resistance encountered from the lattice.

The Meissner Effect is where a magnetic field is expelled from a superconductor during the transition to the superconducting state that is caused by electric currents generated near its surface by the applied field. The magnetic field of these currents cancels out the applied magnetic field within the superconductor. This causes the magnetic levitation associated with superconductors.

Superconductivity is a purely quantum effect that has no counter part in classical physics. It’s most commonly known effect is magnetic levitation. It is one of two purely quantum effects that are seen on a macroscopic scale.

Superfluids a stange Quantum Effect

A superfluid is a liquid that has no viscosity and infinite thermal conductivity. Superfluids appears as normal liquids but flow without friction past any surface allowing it to continue to circulate over obstructions and through pores in its container do only to its own inertia.

The atoms in a superfluid all exist in the same quantum state so they all have the same momentum such that if one moves they all move allowing superfluids to move without friction even through the tiniest of cracks. Superfluid helium will flow up the sides of a jar and over the top. Superfluity is a purely quantum effect that has no counter part in classical physics. It is one of two purely quantum effects that are seen on a macroscopic scale.

Atoms Are Every Thing

The basic unit of matter is called the atom. Atoms consists of a dense, central positively charged nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The Rutherford Gold Foil Experiment conducted in 1911 involved shooting alpha particles (He nuclei) at a gold foil to observe how they are scattered by the gold on a screen. It probed the structure of the Atom.  

If atoms had been a solid mass few if any alpha particles would gotten through. If negative electron were embedded in a thin positive mass all of the alpha particles would get through. However most of the alpha particles get through with some being scattered by the small positive nucleus. Rutherford’s conclusion was that the atoms is mostly empty space with a small positive nucleus surrounded by electrons scattered through out the surrounding space. In such a model the electron can not stand still since if they did they fall into the nucleus

This resulted in efforts to model the atom as a solar system known as the planetary model with electrons orbiting the nucleus like planets around a star. The problem with the planetary model is that electrons are charged particles and an accelerating charge emits light loosing energy and this would cause the electron to spiral into the nucleus.

Broglie had shown that particles have wave like propertied. Bohr went on to show that these waves could be bent into orbits like those expected for an electron with the result that electrons can only occupy those orbits with exactly a whole number of wavelengths. In these orbits the waves are add together with constructive interference. If an orbit has a fractional number of wavelengths the wave would destructively interfere and not persist so an electron can not occupy such an obit. The result is that that electrons jump from orbit to orbit emitting photons when going to a lower orbit and absorbing photons are when going to a higher orbit. It turns out that transitions between the possible electron orbits, matches the spectral lines that are actually observed in hydrogen. This was a major step in development quantum Mechanics.

Studying elements other hydrogen included the effects of multiple electrons resulted in the electron orbital five of which are shown above. They are places in an atom where electrons can actually be found. The shapes of these orbitals were originally found mathematically and they have long been viewed as purely mathematical abstractions that were never expected to be seen. Physics students have long been told this however field-emission electron microscopy has changed this. he imaging of actual electron orbitals was a surprise but it vividly shows the accuracy of Quantum Mechanics.

The Principle of the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

The Uncertainty Principle is the principle of Quantum Mechanics that there is a limit on the accuracy of simultaneous measurement of physical quantities like a particle's position and momentum. The Uncertainty Principle was published by Werner Heisenberg in 1927  being based on the fact that the light needed to observe a subatomic particle will disturb thay particle making measurements uncertain though it goes way beyond that.

Planck's constant is too small for the uncertainty principle to show up in the macroscopic world even though it is significant in the subatomic world. It results in the fact that the more accurately one measures a particle's position the less accurately one can measure its momentum and one measures a particle's momentum the less accurately one can measure its position. This does not happen just because the act of measurement disturbs the system; which it only does sometimes; it is actually related to Wave-particle duality. The same principle applies to other quantities like energy and time.

More recent developments has changed the debate between determinism and freewill. The idea is that the uncertainty principle is a possible avenue for allowing for freewill in neurology. The evidence involves quantum, mechanical processes like tunneling being involved in synapse activity.

The Uncertainty Principle shows us that we are limited in our ability to make measurements of the subatomic world. It shows that there are limits to our possible knowledge about the universe.